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A set of reference materials suitable for public education and "Q & A" (in English and Chinese) related to radiation, radiological protection, Guangdong Nuclear Power station and the Daya Bay Contingency Plan.
Information on Radiation
(Source from the Radiation Health Series No. 6, Radiation Health Unit, Department of Health)
Radiation is a fact of life. Man has always been exposed to radiation from his natural environment. Light and heat from the sun are natural forms of radiation that are essential to our survival. There are also other forms that are generated by man, for example, microwaves for cooking, radio waves for communication, radar for navigation and X-rays for medical investigations. The emission of radiation from the decay of radioactive materials are further examples of the different forms of radiation. Some of these materials occur naturally throughout the environment, others are produced by man.
From the point of view of the effects that radiation produces on matter, there are two classes of radiation: ionising and non-ionising radiations. lonising radiation include cosmic rays, X-rays and the alpha, beta and gamma radiations emitted by the decay of radioactive substances. Non-ionising radiations include: UV, visible light, infrared (IR), microwaves, radio and television waves, EHF, UHF, VHF, HF, LF, VLF, ULF, and ELF electromagnetic radiation, including 60 Hz alternating current.
Ionising radiation
Medical diagnosis and treatment, nuclear power, radiography, gauges, safety signs, smoke detectors, sterilisation of medical appliances, archaeological dating and baggage inspection
Non-ionising radiation
Lighting, heating, lasers, sterilisation, sunbeds, radar, television, radio and electric power lines. Low frequency electromagnetic radiations are also emitted by a wide variety of products at home and in the workplace, from photocopiers to power lines, household appliances, and mobile phones to radios and computers.
lonising radiation is a form of energy travelling either as electromagnetic waves (X-rays and gamma rays) or particles (alpha, beta, neutrons etc.) They tranfer energy to materials they encounter. Faster or heavier particles deliver a harder punch. The unit of radiation absorbed dose is the gray (Gy) which is equivalent to the absorption of one joule energy per one kilogram of material being irradiated.
However, while the energy delivered by different particles may be the same, the effect on living cells can be quite different. Alpha particles and neutrons are approximately ten to twenty times as damaging as beta particles and gamma rays for the same amount of energy deposited.
So the equivalent dose, the sievert (Sv), is the unit to assess the effects of ionising radiation on living tissues or organs, especially human beings. It is the sum of the products of the absorbed dose to the organ or tissue and the weighting factors applicable to each type and energy of radiation.
The effective dose, equivalent dose of the whole body, in sievert (Sv) is the sum of the products of the equivalent dose to the organ or tissue and the weighting factors applicable to each part of the body that are irradiated. .
The dose you received from an external radiation source depends not only on the biological effectiveness of the radiation, but also on the strength of the source, its distance from you, the nature of shielding and your exposure time.
The strength of a radioactive source is determined by its radioactivity which is the number of nuclear disintegrations occurring in a given quantity of material per unit time. The radioactivity per unit mass is the specific activity and the radioactivity per unit volume is the active concentration.
The unit of radioactivity is the becquerel (Bq) which is one disintegration per second. This is a very small unit and usually larger units in kilo becquerel (kBq) or mega becquerels (MBq) are used.
The committed dose you received from an internal deposit of radioactive material depends not only on the biological effectiveness of the radiation, but also on the intake route, the amount of radioactivity, the physical and chemcal form of the material, the duration of the source in the body and the parts of the body that are deposited.
The following are frequent asked questions and answers on radiation:
What is radiation and how are we exposed to it?
Radiation is a natural energy travelling in the form of waves or particles. Some everyday examples are: the microwaves we use to cook food, radio waves for radio and television, radar, X-rays used in medicine and dentistry, and sunlight. We also receive radiation as a result of the natural decay process of radioactivity. Materials that are radioactive are made up of atoms that contain excess energy. These radioactive materials give off their excess energy as radiation.
The three kinds of nuclear radiation that come from the radioactive materials are alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. All three types are present in nature. The natural radiation from soil, water, and cosmic radiation (the sun) is called background radiation.
Alpha particles are the nuclei of helium atoms. Alpha radiation has a short range in air and can be blocked by a sheet of paper. Beta particles are high speed electrons. Beta radiation can be blocked by a layer of plastic or aluminium. Gamma radiation, like the medical X-ray, consists of photons (electromagnetic radiation), except that gamma radiation comes from the atomic nucleus. X-rays are lower in energy and come from the electrons around the nucleus. Gamma rays can be blocked by a very thick layer of lead, several meter of concrete, or a large amount of water
What is the difference between ionising radiation and radioactivity?
A radioactive atom is unstable because its nucleus contains extra energy. When this atom decays to a more stable atom, it releases this extra energy as ionising radiation.
Is there more than one kind of ionising radiation?
Yes, in addition to X-rays, three are common: they are the alpha, beta and gamma radiations. Alpha rays (the nuclei of helium atom) may be stopped by paper, beta rays (high speed electrons) are stopped less easily, and gamma rays (like X-rays) may need lead or concrete to stop them.
Will these ionising radiations make me radioactive?
No, just as light will not make you glow in the dark, a chest X-ray will not make you radioactive.
If ionising radiation does not make a thing radioactive how do items become radioactive in a nuclear reactor?
In a nuclear reactor there are billions of free nuclear projectiles called neutrons. When absorbed in a material they make it radioactive. i.e., it emits its own radiation. This is how radioisotopes are made. There are very few free neutrons in the environment.
Will radiation build up in the body until it gets to a point where it kills you?
No, ionising radiation does not build up in your body any more than light that falls on you builds up. All radiation will eventually disperse. However, radiation effect may appear, following exposure to an high intensity of radiation, just as you may get sunburn from over exposure to sunlight.
Well, if radiation does not build up in the body, how does it harm a person?
All radiation carries energy that may damage living cells. This damage may cause cells either to die or to change their structure and function.
So if I get a dose of radiation, will I be killed?
Very unlikely, since it would take a very large dose to kill sufficient numbers of your cells to cause your death.
How much is this large dose of radiation?
Typically several thousands times as large as the radiation dose you receive normally each year from the environment. Note also that to cause your death, you would need to be exposed more or less in a very short time, not spread out over a year. Compare with sunlight: spread out over a year it gives you suntan, but in one day of sun baking it could cause your death by sunstroke.
Where does my annual radiation dose come from?
The major part derives from the decay of natural radioactivity in the earth, most of it from uranium and thorium: they give rise to a radioactive gas called radon in the air we breathe. Radon is present in all buildings. Smaller, and roughly equal, parts of everyday radiation come from cosmic rays and from the natural radioactivity of our food and drink. Some other radiations are man-made.
What are the man-made sources of my radiation dose?
Medical uses of ionising radiation are the major sources. These include the use of X-rays for radiography and computer tomography, and radiopharmaeuticals in nuclear medicine.
Can you put some figures on these natural background and man-made radiation doses?
On average we receive 2 to 3 mSv per year from natural source of radiation (the background radiation dose). Additional dose from medical use of radiation would depend on our medical history. Dental X-ray would be very small, a chest X-ray may be a few percents of annual background dose, while multiple X-rays in conjunction with a barium enema may be several times annual background dose. Radiation doses in cancer therapy may be larger still.
When you say 'on average' does this mean that some people get more radiation than others?
Yes. Cosmic rays vary with latitude (the height above sea level) and with sun spot activity. Some rocks (like granite) or beach sands are more radioactive in some parts of the earth than others. Some foods like sea foods and Brazil nuts accumulate more radioactivity than others. Cigarette smoking significantly increases our lung doses from radioactivity in tobacco. But the most important natural variation is in radon, brought about by difference in building materials, ventilation, and surface finishes. It is common for the radon dose to vary by a factor of five, both up and down from the average.
The following is a list of web sites with related information on nuclear safety:
Department of Energy (DOE) USA
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
International Commission
on Radiological Protection (ICRP)
An advisory body providing recommendations and guidance on radiation
protection
International Radiation Protection Association (IRPA)
National Radiological Protection Board (NRPB) UK
Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) OECD
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) USA
Radiation Ordinance and Subsidiary Regulations, Chapter 303, The Laws of Hong Kong
The following are frequent asked questions and answers on health effects of radiation:
What are the health effects of radiation?
The health effects of very high doses of radiation are serious. They also are better understood than those of non radiation hazards.
Health effects of the extremely low doses of normal background radiation that we receive are so small that they can only be estimated. In fact, some studies show that low doses of radiation may be beneficial to life.
Radiation at higher levels may have two kinds of health effects: somatic and genetic.
Somatic effects of radiation include an increased chance of cancer and premature aging in the person exposed.
Genetic effects are those that may be passed on to the exposed person's offspring by changes in the genes.
The units used to measure effective radiation dose are the Sv and the mSv (1/1000th of one Sv). Individuals receive an average exposure from all sources of about 2.4 mSv per year. This includes natural sources (such as rocks and cosmic radiation) and man-made sources (such as X-rays). At less than 50 mSv, health effects on test animals are so small that conclusions cannot be made. Radiation doses in excess of 0.25 to 0.50 Sv are typically required to cause minor blood changes detectable only by laboratory examination. There are no other clinically observable effects until a dose of more than 0.50 Sv is received.
Radiation treatments are widely used in medicine to help cure patients with some kinds of cancer. Target organ doses of 50 Sv are common. Much smaller doses of radioactive materials are used as diagnostic tools. The health effects of these levels of radiation help us more than they hurt us.
Is it dangerous for anyone to experience these higher levels of radiation dose?
When whole populations exposed to high doses are compared with those exposed to low doses, difference are not detected. The human race has evolved over millions of years in this radioactive environment.
Did you suggest earlier that if I get a radiation dose more quickly it would do more damage?
Yes. Over an extended period the body can repair most small damage from almost any cause, including radiation, but if the dose is acute, that is all in one short period, more serious damage may occur.
What kinds of radiation damage can occur?
There are two kinds: damage to any of the cells of your body, which may put you at risk (somatic effects), and damage to your reproductive cells, which may put future generations at risk (genetic effects). There are many different somatic effects, but the most important long term effect is cancer induction.
What is the chance of getting a fatal cancer from a dose of radiation?
You have a chance of about 100 in a million of getting a fatal cancer from a radiation dose corresponding to one year of natural background. Very roughly this means that your lifetime dose of natural background might give you a one in a two hundred chance of dying of cancer. Note that the chance of dying of cancer from all causes is approximately one in four.
What is the chance of radiation causing genetic mutations that are passed on to my children?
Your total radiation dose from natural background up to the time your children are conceived (not after) might result in about a one in 3000 chance of your generating genetic diseases that are passed on. Note that about one in ten of all live born children carries some types of genetically related defect.
How can I tell when I am being over exposed to radiation?
Only by appropriate instruments since none of our five senses, sight, hearing, touch, taste, or smell enable us to detect ionising radiation.
How can I protect myself against radiation?
In the daily life, one cannot avoid the majority of natural radiation. However, near local sources of radiation you should use distance, time and shielding to provide protection. Staying further away from the source reduces your dose, but if it is necessary to approach a source you should minimise the time spent near it, and if it is strong, you should ensure that adequate shielding is maintained between you and the source.
How may I measure my radiation dose, and what are the limits?
Radiation workers in general wear a film badge or a thermoluminescent dosemeter (TLD) to record their radiation doses. The regulatory authority requires that all doses should be kept "as low as reasonably achievable’ (ALARA), that doses received by radiation workers should not exceed 20 mSv per year, and that members of the public should not receive more than 1 mSv per year.
The following is a list of web sites with related information on health effects of radiation:
Chernobyl Ten Years on Radiological and Health Impact
Radiation Effects Research Foundation - the Atomic Bomb Survivors
Radiation Health Effects Research Resource
Radiation Protection Today and Tomorrow
Radnet - Radioecological Impact of Nuclear accidents and Industries
Radiological hazards may be classified as either external or internal. An external hazard occurs when radiation emitting from a source located outside the body can affect all or portions of the body. A radioactive material is said to present an internal hazard when it is hazardous inside the body. For example, eating of contaminated foods or breathing of contaminated air could allow radioactive material to be deposited within the body.
Protection from the External Radiation Hazard
There are three general guidelines for controlling exposure to ionising radiation: minimising exposure time, maximising distance from the radiation source, and shielding yourself from the radiation source.
Time is an important factor in limiting exposure to the public and to radiological emergency responders. The shorter the period of time one stays in a radiation field, the smaller the dose he or she will receive. The maximum time to be spent in the radiation environment is given as the exposure time. The exposure time can be calculated using the following equation:
Because of this time factor, it is very important to carefully plan the work to be done prior to entering the radiation environment. Working as quickly as practicable once there, as well as rotating personnel who are in the radiation area, also will help minimise exposure of individuals.
Distance can be used to reduce exposures. A dramatic reduction in effective dose can be obtained by increasing the distance between you and the radiation source. The decrease in exposure rate as one moves away from the source is greater than one might expect. Doubling the distance from a point source of radiation decreases the exposure rate to 1/4 of its original value. This relationship is called the inverse square law. The word inverse implies that the exposure rate decreases and the distance from the source increases. Square suggests that this decrease is more rapid than just a one-to-one proportion.
Radiation exposure levels decrease as distance from a non point source increases, but not in the same mathematical proportions as the inverse square law suggests.
In radiological emergencies where the radiation exposure rates are very high, some shielding may be necessary.
Shielding is the placement of an "absorber" between you and the radiation source. An absorber is a material that reduces the number of particles or photons travelling from the radiation source to you. Alpha, beta and neutron radiation can all be stopped by different thickness of absorbers. There is no absorber shield that can stop all
gamma rays. Instead, introduction of a shield of a specified thickness will reduce the radiation intensity by a certain fraction. Addition of more shielding will reduce the intensity further.
Recommendations for shielding procedures should involve careful comparison of the exposure reduced by the shielding with the exposure added due to increased time required to shield the area.
Protection from the Internal Radiation Hazard
The internal hazard is minimised by limiting the intake of contaminated air and drinking water, and the consumption of contaminated foods.
Information on the Daya Bay Nuclear Power Station:
Guangdong Nuclear Power Joint Venture Company, Ltd.
Guangdong Nuclear Power Joint Venture Company (GNPJVC)
Nuclear Power Building, Central Shennan Road, Shenzhen City, Guangdong
Province
Tel: 0755 3366566 (Int +86 755 3366566)
Fax: 0755 3365513 (Int +86 755 3365513)
Tlx: 420230
Contacts:
Wang Quanguo - President
Zan Yunlong - General Manager
Zeng Wenxing - Assistant General Manager
Peter H. Chow - First Deputy General Manager
Xi Zhiling - Liaison Officer
Zhou Zhanlin - Second Deputy General Manager
Zhu Wenbin - Senior Engineer
The followings are frequent asked questions and answers on the safety of nuclear power station:
How much radiation do I get from nuclear power plants?
Very little. From all sources, a person in Hong Kong receives an average exposure to radiation of about 2 to 3 mSv per year. Most of this comes from the naturally occurring radioactive materials in air, soil, water, rocks, building materials, and food, for examples, radon in air, carbon-14, potassium-40 in food.
Radiation exposure from all commercial nuclear energy power plants has an averaged value of around 0.10 mSv per person annually. Those who live near a nuclear power plant usually receive less than 0.05 mSv per year. The dose limit for people who work in nuclear power plants is a maximum of 20 mSv per year. Utilities themselves normally have set their own limits even lower than that.
What guidelines are followed for the release of radioactivity from nuclear plants?
The guiding principle for releases from nuclear power plants is ALARA, (As Low As Reasonably Achievable). Plant operators pay continuous, careful attention to assure themselves and the public that any radiation releases are well below the levels of significant environmental or human health effects. These levels are set by law and are based on data collected for more than 50 years. The current exposure level is 1 mSv per year at the plant boundary. It is impossible to operate a nuclear plant with absolutely no release of radioactivity. The releases are normally not critical as far as human health is concerned, and, in fact, contain less amount of radioactivity than the releases from comparable coal fired power plants.
How can we be certain that nuclear power plants are having minimal effects on the environment?
The Hong Kong Observatory set up an environmental monitoring programme several years before bringing nuclear fuel on site. They continue monitoring and sampling, comparing effects during the life of the plant. This may include monitoring of a nearby lake, milk from cows, broad leafy vegetables, and fish. In this way they know exactly what effect operation of the plant is having on the environment. In many areas, independent laboratories analyse the samples and report to the utility, regulatory authorities and public document rooms simultaneously. These records are public. The commercial operation of nuclear power plants has had little, if any, measurable effect on the environment.
What is the risk to the public from radioactivity released from nuclear plant operations?
It is much smaller than the risk from radiation we receive naturally every day (see health effects) Nuclear plants add less than one percent of your total background radiation exposure. If nuclear plants were completely eliminated as sources of radioactivity, that elimination would cause no detectable change in your radiation exposure.
Are benefits of nuclear energy worth the risks?
Most people apparently do believe that the benefits are worth the potential risks. In our democratic society, decisions are made by majority agreements through the political process and our elected representatives. Such majority agreement depends on trade-offs involving health and safety, quality of life, and the balance of some activity outweigh its risks, that activity continues. We continue to drive our cars or travel by jet flight, for example, in spite of the risks involved.
The following is a list of web sites with related information on nuclear power:
Information on Guangdong Nuclear Power Station at Daya Bay
The Trade Environment Database - Daya Bay Nuclear Power Plant
The International Nuclear Safety Center (INSC)
The
Virtual Nuclear Tourist
Nuclear Power Plants around the World
Control
the Nuclear Power Plant
Demonstration
Principles of Intervention for Nuclear Incidents
Four principles are considered as a general basis for protective action guides.
The early phase (also referred to as the identification of the accident) is arbitrarily defined as the period beginning at the initiation of a radioactive release and extending to a few days later, when deposition of airborne materials has ceased. It also is the period when immediate decisions on protective actions are required. Decisions must be based primarily on predictions of radiological conditions in the environment. The early phase may last from hours to days. For purposes of dose projection (or prediction of doses), the time period is assumed to last four days.
The intermediate phase is arbitrarily defined as the period beginning after the source and releases have been brought under control and environmental measurements are available for use as a basis for decisions on protective actions. The intermediate phase extends until protective actions are completed. It may overlap with the early and late phases, and may last from weeks to many months. For purposes of dose projection, this phase is assumed to last one year.
The late phase is the period beginning when recovery actions are commenced so as to reduce radiation levels in the environment to permit unrestricted, long term use of property. The late phase ends when all recovery actions have been completed, and it may last from months to years.
Potential Exposure Pathways in Accident Phases
During the early phase of a nuclear incident, exposure may come from external gamma dose and beta dose to the skin from direct exposure to airborne materials and from deposited materials, and the committed dose to internal organs from inhalation of radioactive material. Individuals exposed to a plume also may be exposed to deposited material over longer periods of time via ingestion, direct external exposure, and inhalation pathways.
The principal pathways for exposure of the public during the intermediate phase are expected to be exposure of the whole body to external gamma radiation from deposited radioactive materials. Exposure may also occur from contamination of skin and clothes and ingestion of radioactively contaminated food and water.
During the late phase, exposure may ensue following external radiation from ground deposition, inhalation of radioactive material re-suspended in air, and ingestion of radioactively contaminated food and water.
In the event of a nuclear incident, the potential dose to the population for each exposure pathway is called the projected dose and the dose saved by implementing a protective action is called the averted dose. The value of a quantity (radiation dose, specific activity, or activity concentration) which, if exceeded or predicted to be exceeded in case of an incident, may require the application of a given protective action is the level of intervention. Derived intervention levels are limits on the activity concentration or specific activity of foods for human consumption.
A Guide for Protective Actions
The protective actions available to avoid or reduce radiation dose can be categorised according to the exposure pathway and incident phase. Evacuation and sheltering-in-place (supplemented by bathing and changes of clothing) are the principal protective actions for use during the early phase to protect the public from exposure to direct radiation and inhalation from an airborne plume.
There are two types of protective actions during the intermediate phase. Relocation and decontamination are the principal protective actions for protection of the public from whole body external exposure due to deposited material and from inhalation of any re-suspended radioactive particulate material during the intermediate and late phases. The second major type of protective action during the intermediate phase encompasses restrictions on the use of contaminated food and water.
Relocation, decontamination, and food and water controls are the protective actions that may be implemented during the late phase.
It is necessary to distinguish between evacuation and relocation with regard to the incident phases.
For response during the early phase
of a nuclear incident, the action for evacuation (or sheltering) is an averted dose of 500 mSv. This means that evacuation of the public will usually be justified when the projected dose to an individual is over 500 mSv. The administration of stable iodine is justified provided that an average thyroid dose of 500 mSv can be averted. People should be temporarily relocated if the averted dose is expected to be greater than 30 mSv in a month and then return when the averted dose is less than 10 mSv in a month. .
The protective actions for exposure to deposited radioactivity during the intermediate phase of a nuclear incident are greater than or equal to 20 mSv for relocation and less than 20 mSv for application of simple dose reduction techniques. Dose reduction techniques include scrubbing and/or flushing hard surfaces, soaking or ploughing soil, minor removal of soil from spots where radioactive materials have concentrated, and spending more time than usual indoors or in other low exposure rate areas.
Finally, an average averted dose greater than 1 Sv in a lifetime is always justified for permanent relocation of the whole population.
The following are frequent asked questions and answers in the event of nuclear incident or radiological emergency:
How safe is the Guangdong Nuclear Power Station (GNPS) at Daya Bay?
The GNPS has two pressurised water reactors with multiple safety design features. Each reactor has been built with three separate protective barriers designed to prevent the escape of any radioactive material from the plant.
The GNPS is different in both design and technology from the reactor at Chernobyl, which suffered a core melt-down in 1986. The kind of accident that occurred at Chernobyl simply cannot happen at the GNPS. A comprehensive study published by the UK Atomic Energy Authority in 1990 concluded that the risk of an accident at GNPS endangering the health or safety of Hong Kong people was lower, by a very large margin, than the risks encountered by ordinary people in their everyday life.
How does radioactive material travel?
If released into the atmosphere, radioactive material, which is invisible, goes in the direction or the prevailing wind. It behaves in the same way as a cloud of smoke from a fire, dispersing into the atmosphere, and depositing some of its contents onto the ground. The concentration of radioactive material diminishes rapidly:
If there ever was a nuclear reactor incident, how might the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) be affected?
Exposure to radiation can take two forms:
It is international practice that detailed planning against direct exposure to radiation is considered necessary within a planning zone of 10 to 16 km radius around a nuclear plant.
HKSAR Government has taken a very cautious approach: full countermeasures have been prepared for an area of up to 20 km from the site of the GNPS.
Only Mirs Bay and the island of Ping Chau fall with this zone. The northeast coast of the Northern Territories is over 20 km away, and Hong Kong Island and Kowloon are some 50 km and more away.
Given these distances, it is highly unlikely that HKSAR would be affected significantly by direct exposure to radiation following any accidental release from the GNPS. The IAEA has advised that there is no need to plan for evacuation or sheltering for any part of HKSAR other than Mirs Bay and Ping Chau.
The Hong Kong Observatory will measure radiation levels throughout the HKSAR round the clock at all times through Its Radiation Monitoring Network.
As regards possible exposure to radiation through food and water consumption, in accordance with international practice, there are effective countermeasures in the Contingency Plan to monitor and control food and water to protect the Hong Kong public.
How would the Daya Bay Contingency Plan operate?
The following are the key countermeasures that the HKSAR Government would swiftly put into effect when necessary in the event of a nuclear accident:
How would the HKSAR Government's response be organized?
The Emergency Monitoring and Support Centre (EMSC), managed by the Security Bureau, co-ordinates the HKSAR Government's response to both natural and man-made disasters.
In a radiological emergency, EMSC would be assisted primarily by the Hong Kong Observatory, the Electrical and Mechanical Services Department and the Department of Health. The Hong Kong Observatory would co-ordinate the emergency monitoring of radiation and assess the associated consequences. The Electrical and Mechanical Services Department would advise on the engineering conditions of the GNPS, the possible developments of the accident and the security of the power supply in HKSAR. Particular attention would be given to die monitoring of water and foodstuff to ensure that they were suitable for consumption. The Department of Health would provide an assessment of the potential health hazard and give technical advice on the countermeasures to be taken. Other departments and organisations would also have specific roles to play, depending on the prevailing circumstances of the emergency in question.
You should stay tuned to the radio and TV for announcements about what to do.
In the case of a minor accident, protective actions or countermeasures might not be necessary.
In the very unlikely event of a serious accident, you might be advised to wash thoroughly all fresh food before eating it.
If it was necessary to take any protective action, you would be advised to do so in good time through public announcements in the media.
How shall we let you know what's going on?
In the very unlikely event of a nuclear incident involving the release of radioactivity from GNPS, the Government Information Centre would be responsible for giving out information and advice to the public through internet, radio, television and press announcements.
The following is a list of web sites with related information on Radiological Emergency:
Fact Sheet: Nuclear Power Plant Emergency
Nuclear and Radiation Safety: Guidance for Emergency Response
Last updated September 1999